They went on to occupy the city of Elatea, only a few days' march from both Athens and Thebes. [258], The eastern borders of Alexander's empire began to collapse even during his lifetime. But this mania for Alexander, strange as it was, was overshadowed by subsequent events in Alexandria. [30], Upon Philip's return, Alexander was dispatched with a small force to subdue the revolts in southern Thrace. This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because Artemis was away, attending the birth of Alexander. He had his cousin, the former Amyntas IV, executed. [104] However, when, at some point later, Alexander was on the Jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised Sogdiana in revolt. [216] She instilled a sense of destiny in him,[218] and Plutarch tells how his ambition "kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years". [118] There are both Greek and non-Greek aspects to this design. [175][176] However, more recently, it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than Abdalonymus's death. Alexander the Great (article) | Khan Academy Alexander the Great Symbol - Etsy Norway Struck under Balakros or Menes, circa 333-327 BC", "Images of Authority II: The Greek Example", Alexander: Selected Texts from Arrian, Curtius and Plutarch, The Classical Tradition: Greek and Roman Influences on Western Literature: Greek and Roman Influences on Western Literature, "World map according to Eratosthenes (194 B.C. He was taken to his bedchamber where, after days of agony, he fell into a coma and died. [269] Aspects of Hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century.[274]. Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), encounter between Alexander and Diogenes the Cynic, Chronology of the expedition of Alexander the Great into Asia. [86], From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa, one of the Achaemenid capitals, and captured its treasury. [140], After three days, unable to persuade his men to back down, Alexander gave Persians command posts in the army and conferred Macedonian military titles upon Persian units. [263] The temple was designed by Pytheos, one of the architects of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. Alexander was the first to break the Theban lines, followed by Philip's generals. In the aftermath of Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to the fortress of Aornos. The trilogy "Alexander the Great" by Valerio Massimo Manfredi consisting of "The son of the dream", "The sand of Amon", and "The ends of the world". [306] In the Shahnameh, Alexander's first journey is to Mecca to pray at the Kaaba. [91] Curtius claims that Alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning. [42] Alexander reacted by sending an actor, Thessalus of Corinth, to tell Pixodarus that he should not offer his daughter's hand to an illegitimate son, but instead to Alexander. [107], The foundation of the "new" Smyrna was also associated with Alexander. [275] The process of Hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west. Alexander was the first king to wear the royal diadem, a band of cloth tied around the hair that was to become the symbol of Hellenistic kingship. He was the king of his native Macedonia, ruler of the Greeks, the king of Persia and even an Egyptian pharaoh. The advance was successful and broke Darius's center, causing the latter to flee once again. [14] Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations for these dreams: that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb; or that Alexander's father was Zeus. Department of Image Collections, National Gallery of Art Library, Washington, DC. Moreover, that a very pleasant odour exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have read in the Memoirs of Aristoxenus. Geoff W. Adams, The Roman Emperor Gaius "Caligula" and His Hellenistic Aspirations, pp 46. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars broke out across the Macedonian Empire, eventually leading to its disintegration at the hands of the Diadochi. [125][126] Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece. )", East-West Orientation of Historical Empires, "The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, Pella (Khirbet Fahil) Jordan", "The Narratives of "the Companions of the Cave," Moses and His Servant, and Dh 'l-Qarnayn in Srat al-Kahf", "The Mughal Sikander: Influence of the Romance of Alexander on Mughal Manuscript Painting", "Quintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander the Great", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_the_Great&oldid=1152458164, Construction of 1,000 ships larger than triremes, along with harbours and a road running along the African coast all the way to the, Amalgamation of small settlements into larger cities (", Construction of a monumental tomb for his father Philip, "to match the greatest of the, This page was last edited on 30 April 2023, at 10:27. [221] He had a calmer sideperceptive, logical, and calculating. Philip II had waged war against the Thracians to the north, which left Alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent. On entering Persepolis, Alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days. The correct answer is "He is alive and well and rules the world!" All three of these people had motive to have Philip murdered. [145], On the evening of May 29, Alexander organized a banquet for his army to celebrate the end of the campaign of India and the onset of the invasion of the Arabian Peninsula. [314] During the first Italian campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars, in a question from Bourrienne, asking whether he gave his preference to Alexander or Caesar, Napoleon said that he places Alexander The Great in the first rank, the main reason being his campaign on Asia. [291][292] He began openly mimicking Alexander in his personal style. Alexander not only returned Ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of "Persian robes, gold and silver ornaments, 30 horses and 1,000 talents in gold". He invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara (a region presently straddling eastern Afghanistan and northern Pakistan), to come to him and submit to his authority. [68] At the ancient Phrygian capital of Gordium, Alexander "undid" the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot, a feat said to await the future "king of Asia". Some films that have been shot with the theme of Alexander are: There are also many references to other movies and TV series. Alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day. Further south, at Halicarnassus, in Caria, Alexander successfully waged his first large-scale siege, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes and the Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates, to withdraw by sea. Instead, they supported Alexander's half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus. They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs [6.4km], its depth one hundred fathoms [180m], while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. [17] Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into the 21st century. One Greek king, Menander I, probably became Buddhist, and was immortalized in Buddhist literature as 'Milinda'. [222] This was no doubt in part due to Aristotle's tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to learn. One of his generals, Ptolemy, got control of Alexander the Great's body and brought it to Memphis, Egypt, in 321 B.C., Chris Naunton . Throughout time, art objects related to Alexander were being created. Nicolle, David (2000). He had conquered the Persian Empire, traveled farther east than the god Dionysus, and survived a multitude of war wounds. [98] Alexander buried Darius's remains next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral. [17], This article is about the ancient king of Macedonia. [17], The conquest by Philip II of Pangaeum and then of the island of Thasos between 356 and 342 BC brought rich gold and silver mines under Macedonian control. [143], Afterwards, Alexander travelled to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure. It was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of Abdalonymus (died 311 BC), the king of Sidon appointed by Alexander immediately following the battle of Issus in 331. [264] An inscription from the temple, now housed in the British Museum, declares: "King Alexander dedicated [this temple] to Athena Polias. [233] Thus, rather than megalomania, his behaviour may have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together. Alexander is a male given name.The most prominent bearer of the name is Alexander the Great, the king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia who created one of the largest empires in ancient history.. Variants listed here are Aleksandar, Aleksander and Aleksandr.Related names and diminutives include Iskandar, Alec, Alek, Alex, Alexandre, Aleks, Aleksa and Sander; feminine forms include . Gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two. [89] During his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes I and spread to the rest of the city. "[300], In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in Alexandria, a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the Alexander Romance, later falsely ascribed to Callisthenes and therefore known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. Starting from Amphipolis, he travelled east into the country of the "Independent Thracians"; and at Mount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated the Thracian forces manning the heights. He developed a life-long love of reading and music. [198], The Alexander Mosaic and contemporary coins portray Alexander with "a straight nose, a slightly protruding jaw, full lips and eyes deep set beneath a strongly pronounced forehead". Possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the Second Persian War by Xerxes;[90] Plutarch and Diodorus allege that Alexander's companion, the hetaera Thas, instigated and started the fire. [9][10] He was the son of the erstwhile king of Macedon, Philip II, and his fourth wife, Olympias (daughter of Neoptolemus I, king of Epirus). This star symbol with sixteen rays is the national Macedonian royal symbol of Phillip of Macedon, Alexander the Great, and the ancient Macedonian Empire. According to the legend, after Alexander hunted on the Mount Pagus, he slept under a plane tree at the sanctuary of Nemesis. Most infamously, Alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, Cleitus the Black, during a violent drunken altercation at Maracanda (modern day Samarkand in Uzbekistan), in which Cleitus accused Alexander of several judgmental mistakes and most especially, of having forgotten the Macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle. As a young boy, Alexander was taught to read, write, and play the lyre. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to the Helios" ( ). He was probably intrigued by other species as magnificent creatures of the gods, as possible teachers, and whatever else he could read from their behaviors and appearances. [3][4], Until the age of 16, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle. portrait head | British Museum [79] To legitimize taking power and be recognized as the descendant of the long line of pharaohs, Alexander made sacrifices to the gods at Memphis and went to consult the famous oracle of Amun-Ra at the Siwa Oasis. [29], At the age of 16, Alexander's education under Aristotle ended. [77], Egypt was only one of a large number of territories taken by Alexander from the Persians. [192] The Macedonian phalanx, armed with the sarissa, a spear 6 metres (20ft) long, had been developed and perfected by Philip II through rigorous training, and Alexander used its speed and manoeuvrability to great effect against larger but more disparate Persian forces. [67], From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous Lycia and the Pamphylian plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians naval bases. [35] At Corinth, Philip established a "Hellenic Alliance" (modelled on the old anti-Persian alliance of the Greco-Persian Wars), which included most Greek city-states except Sparta. [65][f] He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying he accepted Asia as a gift from the gods. [42] Philip exiled four of Alexander's friends, Harpalus, Nearchus, Ptolemy and Erigyius, and had the Corinthians bring Thessalus to him in chains. [183] Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story that Alexander passed his signet ring to Perdiccas, a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him. [299] His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in Cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis. Ernst Badian argued that they were exaggerated by Perdiccas in order to ensure that the Macedonian troops voted not to carry them out. [141] In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Susa, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year. Ptolemaic cult of Alexander the Great - Wikipedia Below is a coin with the face of Alexander the Great, depicting the king with the lion's scalp on his head. That is the stuff that emotional leaders are made of. Campaigning against the Greek city of Perinthus, Alexander reportedly saved his father's life. Having damaged the enemy's cohesion, Philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them. Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. [163] Other illnesses fit the symptoms, including acute pancreatitis, West Nile virus,[164][165] and Guillain-Barr syndrome. [234], Alexander married three times: Roxana, daughter of the Sogdian nobleman Oxyartes of Bactria,[235][236][237] out of love;[238] and the Persian princesses Stateira and Parysatis, the former a daughter of Darius III and the latter a daughter of Artaxerxes III, for political reasons. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought against him from the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and Aornos. When "his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible this encouraged Alexander all the more to make the attempt". [307] Alexander was depicted as performing a Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) many times in subsequent Islamic art and literature. [231] He began to identify himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon. How Did Alexander the Great Die? - WorldAtlas causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm. [187] Furthermore, Perdiccas had read the notebooks containing Alexander's last plans to the Macedonian troops in Babylon, who voted not to carry them out.[62]. [142] Alexander admired Cyrus the Great, from an early age reading Xenophon's Cyropaedia, which described Cyrus's heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator. There is a tradition that they would only start serious drinking, after everyone was done with their meals. [305] In Egypt, Alexander was portrayed as the son of Nectanebo II, the last pharaoh before the Persian conquest. Hephaestion makes his appearance in history at the point when Alexander reaches Troy. Some of the most pronounced effects of Hellenization can be seen in Afghanistan and India, in the region of the relatively late-rising Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250125 BC) (in modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Tajikistan) and the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC 10 AD) in modern Afghanistan and India. However, the infantry, under the command of Meleager, rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. These Greco-Buddhist kingdoms sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to China, Sri Lanka and Hellenistic Asia and Europe (Greco-Buddhist monasticism). Alexander responded quickly and drove them from their territory. [188] Other scholars have proposed that they were invented by later authors within the tradition of the Alexander Romance. Alexander III 'the Great'. [50] He also had two Macedonian princes from the region of Lyncestis killed for having been involved in his father's assassination, but spared a third, Alexander Lyncestes. [291][292][293] The historian Christopher Matthew mentions that the term Phalangarii has two possible meanings, both with military connotations. [13] Plutarch stated that Philip, overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition, kissed his son tearfully, declaring: "My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. [212][213] Reconstruction of the original polychromy of the relief with Alexander on the sarcophagus shows him with brown eyes and chestnut brown hair. [23][24][25] Among them were Artabazos II and his daughter Barsine, possible future mistress of Alexander, who resided at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC, as well as Amminapes, future satrap of Alexander, or a Persian nobleman named Sisines. The territory was colonized, and a city, named Alexandropolis, was founded. His image, name, and legendary power remained resonantand politically visiblelong after his death. [13] During Philip's absence, the Thracian tribe of Maedi revolted against Macedonia. [180], Alexander's death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately believed. The earliest of these is Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), followed by Quintus Curtius Rufus (mid-to-late 1st century AD), Arrian (1st to 2nd century AD), the biographer Plutarch (1st to 2nd century AD), and finally Justin, whose work dated as late as the 4th century. Taking advantage of this power vacuum, Chandragupta Maurya (referred to in Greek sources as "Sandrokottos"), of relatively humble origin, took control of the Punjab, and with that power base proceeded to conquer the Nanda Empire. Outstanding Accomplishments of Alexander the Great The death of the son necessitated the death of the father, and thus Parmenion, who had been charged with guarding the treasury at Ecbatana, was assassinated at Alexander's command, to prevent attempts at vengeance. Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as India. Where is Alexander the Great's tomb | Live Science Alexander the Great became King of Macedonia in 336BC at the age of 20. [275] On the Silk Road trade routes, Hellenistic culture hybridized with Iranian and Buddhist cultures. [130], East of Porus's kingdom, near the Ganges River, was the Nanda Empire of Magadha, and further east, the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. According to Curtius, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble. [62] The one exception was a call to arms by Spartan king Agis III in 331BC, whom Antipater defeated and killed in the battle of Megalopolis. [108], Later, in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life was revealed, this one instigated by his own royal pages. His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean. ISBN 978-0-300-16426-8. Around AD 200, Emperor Septimius Severus closed Alexander's tomb to the public. [62] Alexander's sacking of Thebes ensured that Greece remained quiet during his absence. [36][37], When Philip returned to Pella, he fell in love with and married Cleopatra Eurydice in 338 BC,[38] the niece of his general Attalus. Macedon is too small for you", and bought the horse for him. GERIN Dominique, GRANDJEAN Catherine, AMANDRY Michel, DE CALLATAY Franois, La monnaie grecque, "L'Antiquit: une histoire", Ellipse, 2001. p117-119. For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed. [147], Given the propensity of the Macedonian aristocracy to assassination,[150] foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death. [84] Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (modern Hamadan) while Alexander captured Babylon. Tarsos mint. "[123] A similar slaughter followed at Ora. [162], Alexander's body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket. These only occasionally quote the letters and it is an open question how reliable such quotations are. [276] The resulting syncretism known as Greco-Buddhism influenced the development of Buddhism[277] and created a culture of Greco-Buddhist art. Though outmanoeuvered by Darius's significantly larger army, he marched back to Cilicia, where he defeated Darius at Issus. [284] The Macriani, a Roman family that in the person of Macrinus briefly ascended to the imperial throne, kept images of Alexander on their persons, either on jewellery, or embroidered into their clothes. [195], When faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques, such as in Central Asia and India, Alexander adapted his forces to his opponents' style. PDF The Remains of Alexander the Great: The God, The King, The Symbol - CORE When the animal died (because of old age, according to Plutarch, at age thirty), Alexander named a city after him, Bucephala. For other uses, see. Alexander III of Macedon (Ancient Greek: , romanized:Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great,[a] was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. [53], Alexander stopped at Thermopylae, where he was recognized as the leader of the Amphictyonic League before heading south to Corinth. He then stormed the pass of the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains) which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.[87]. Any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging Gorgon who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea, all hands aboard. "[263] This inscription is one of the few independent archaeological discoveries confirming an episode from Alexander's life. Alexander also ordered the murder of Attalus,[50] who was in command of the advance guard of the army in Asia Minor and Cleopatra's uncle. Many of these students would become his friends and future generals, and are often known as the "Companions". [181] According to Diodorus, Alexander's companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was "ti kratisti""to the strongest". He lost another child when Roxana miscarried at Babylon. [69] According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword. As in Tyre, men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery. Meanwhile, the city of Amphissa began to work lands that were sacred to Apollo near Delphi, a sacrilege that gave Philip the opportunity to further intervene in Greek affairs. [114] However, Alexander's constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire depleted Macedon's strength, greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led to its subjugation by Rome after the Third Macedonian War (171168 BC). Greek-speaking communities in central Anatolia and in far-eastern Anatolia survived until the Greek genocide and GreekTurkish population exchanges of the early 20th century AD. [67] In the following year, 332BC, he was forced to attack Tyre, which he captured after a long and difficult siege. [153] His extraordinary achievements, coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions, may have combined to produce this effect. [62] Antipater referred the Spartans' punishment to the League of Corinth, which then deferred to Alexander, who chose to pardon them. [99] He claimed that, while dying, Darius had named him as his successor to the Achaemenid throne. [205][206][207], Many scholars and historians attribute heterochromia to him. Gordian knot | proverbial term | Britannica [100] The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand war elephants. After his trip to Siwa, Alexander was crowned in the temple of Ptah at Memphis. [63][64], Taking over the invasion project of Philip II, Alexander's army crossed the Hellespont in 334BC with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000,[61] drawn from Macedon and various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace, Paionia, and Illyria. 336-323 BC. [32] Philip marched on Amphissa (ostensibly acting on the request of the Amphictyonic League), capturing the mercenaries sent there by Demosthenes and accepting the city's surrender. [149][181], Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead suggesting that Roxane's baby would be king, if male; with himself, Craterus, Leonnatus, and Antipater as guardians. [33], As Philip marched south, his opponents blocked him near Chaeronea, Boeotia. [102] The Greeks however regarded the gesture of proskynesis as the province of deities and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. On June 10, 323 BC, Alexander the Great died of fever in Babylon after battling illness for several days. AR Tetradrachm (25mm, 17.15 g, 1h). [266][267], Suda wrote that Alexander built a big temple to Sarapis. [177][178][179] In addition, Leosthenes, also, likened the anarchy between the generals, after Alexander's death, to the blinded Cyclops "who after he had lost his eye went feeling and groping about with his hands before him, not knowing where to lay them". Marching west into Illyria, Alexander defeated each in turn, forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops. [94], Alexander then chased Darius, first into Media, and then Parthia. Earlier portraits of Alexander, in heroic style, look more mature than the portraits made after his death, such as this example. [173][174], Pompey, Julius Caesar and Augustus all visited the tomb in Alexandria, where Augustus, allegedly, accidentally knocked the nose off. The Alexander Romance, in particular, has had a significant impact on portrayals of Alexander in later cultures, from Persian to medieval European to modern Greek. This so irritated Alexander, that throwing one of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" [193] Alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army, which employed various languages and weapons. Brauer, G. (1967). ApieceOfGreece. [223], Alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences. Philip was then named Hegemon (often translated as "Supreme Commander") of this league (known by modern scholars as the League of Corinth), and announced his plans to attack the Persian Empire. The Athenians, led by Demosthenes, voted to seek alliance with Thebes against Macedonia. In 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Persian Empire and began a series of campaigns that lasted for 10 years. It included: The enormous scale of these plans has led many scholars to doubt their historicity. [294][295] It was said that the bridge was to rival the Persian king Xerxes' pontoon bridge crossing of the Hellespont. Alexander was emboldened to divide his forces, and Ambhi assisted Hephaestion and Perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at Hund,[121] supplied their troops with provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality. Ancient Greek Macedonian Symbol. [313] In medieval Europe, Alexander the Great was revered as a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes whose lives were believed to encapsulate all the ideal qualities of chivalry. [51] Alexander spared Arrhidaeus, who was by all accounts mentally disabled, possibly as a result of poisoning by Olympias. Also, the New Testament was written in the Koine Greek language. Aelian writes of Alexander's visit to Troy where "Alexander garlanded the tomb of Achilles, and Hephaestion that of Patroclus, the latter hinting that he was a beloved of Alexander, in just the same way as Patroclus was of Achilles.
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