We also thank the editors of Social Forces and the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful guidance and critiques. /Width 29
This raises the possibility of a selection bias mechanism whereby higher-ability children spend more time sedentary or consuming media. These activities were then coded by PSID researchers, and in their raw form may be aggregated to obtain a detailed snapshot of how and where children spent their time. FOIA endobj
2015). 11 Increasing motivation through regular reinforcing experiences may be the first step toward achievement of For instance, physical trampling will damage vegetation and increase compaction of soils. Bookshelf He is also interested in mapping the genetic architecture of phenotypic plasticity, and characterizing social and genetic sorting as distinct processes. In table 1, we present our core results on the effects of physical, outdoor, and sedentary activity on math scores. Recent reviews have argued that the consumption of folate in particular and other essential B vitamins in general are important to cognitive performance and brain health at every stage of the life cycle, in addition to during pregnancy (McGarel et al. We found no noticeable difference in results by excising homework time and confining the measure to the length of the school day alone. Our research suffers from various limitations that render our results provisional. 2023 Mar 29;13(4):293. doi: 10.3390/bs13040293. Lillard, Angeline S., and Jennifer Peterson. 2016; Weininger, Lareau, and Conley 2015). To capture the effect of sunlight on behavior, we use daily historical records of insolation (sunlight measured in kilojoules per square meter at the county level), collected as part of the North America Land Data Assimilation System (NLDAS) and disseminated by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) Wonder database (Centers for Disease Control 2017). Yet other experimental research has found that even very short exposures (i.e., minutes, not hours) to high-intensity media can depress the executive functioning in children (Lillard and Peterson 2011), negatively mirroring related RCT study findings in physical activity. We conclude with a descriptive examination of the trend lines between our data and the new 2014 CDS cohort, providing relevant contemporary context for our findings. Intuitively, one would suspect that children who have unstructured free time would be more sensitive to weather conditions compared to those taking piano or violin lessons, for example. While it is only in its earliest stages, the new PSID CDS will be a powerful tool in the future for researchers who seek to understand how behavior affects assessment and achievement. /Length 11 0 R
2022 Jun 15;10(1):151. doi: 10.1186/s40359-022-00861-1. endobj
Other longitudinal observational studies like the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) can also be leveraged to examine these relationships, though each dataset has its relative weaknesses (e.g., the inability for researchers to obtain geocoded data in Add Health). Still, because screen time and sedentary behavior are so intertwined in the American context, much of this work focuses on physical outcomes like body mass index, and extant findings on cognition are rather limited and equivocal. Many older adults face limitations to participating in active leisure activities as a result of their physical constraints from aging. We also perform a robustness check whereby we restrict our sample to sunlight outliers in an attempt to capture the influence of more random as opposed to seasonally based weather, finding substantively similar resultswith the exception of gaming, which is no longer significantly predictive (see table S3 in the online appendix). We use both applied problems (open-ended math word problems) and broad reading (reading, writing, and oral exercises) age-standardized scores as outcomes, but present the results for the latter in the online appendix (appendix table S2) because our time use variables of interest fail to significantly predict verbal assessment. Off, Morten K., Arnfinn E. Steindal, Alina C. Porojnicu, Asta Juzeniene, Alexander Vorobey, Anders Johnsson, and Johan Moan. Outdoor recreation in protected areas negatively impacts wildlife Other researchers have similarly argued for the primacy of noncognitive skills in fostering long-run outcomes in educational attainment (Heckman and Kautz 2013). RECREATION, PASSIVE: Recreation that involves existing natural resources and has a minimal impact. RECREATION, PASSIVE means low intensity recreation activities which have limited noise and light impacts and are minimally disruptive to the natural environment. For the purposes of this title, National Library of Medicine Recreational Activities on Source Water "(($#$% '+++,.3332-3333333333 * HHS Vulnerability Disclosure, Help These initial advantages extend into college enrollment and degree attainment, with sex-based achievement gaps continuing to widen both within and between birth cohorts (Buchmann and DiPrete 2006). Additionally, we include a suite of household shocks which are linked in the literature to either childhood development or other fundamentals like family SES status, including indicators of an additional birth (Sandberg and Rafail 2014), the departure of a parent from the household (Tach 2015), and whether the family changed residence from a prior wave (Jelleyman and Spencer 2008). For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription. We conclude by descriptively examining time use among a comparably aged subset of the new CDS cohort in 2014 to adolescents in our main data, offering suggestive evidence of recent trend lines in behavior among US children, and providing relevant contemporary context for our findings. Older Adults' Advance Aging and Life Satisfaction Levels: Effects of Lifestyles and Health Capabilities. 1991). /ColorSpace /DeviceRGB
We restricted the 2014 CDS descriptive estimates to children above 10 so they are comparable in age to the 2007 wave (when the youngest children in our sample were about 10 years old). With respect to screen-time behaviors, we also cannot account for the content of what children were watching or what games they were playing, which could also influence our results. Keywords: While we seek to determine the effects of qualitatively orthogonal behaviorsthat is, active versus sedentarywe do not code these in such broad ways as to render them in zero-sum opposition. Recreation Passive leisure activities become alternative leisure activities for older adults as a result of limited physical capacity. 2014). *:JZjz ? Our imputed specifications in table 1 produce substantively similar estimates, which suggest that data missingness is not systematically biasing our core results. New Evidence from Combined Sibling and Panel Data, Residential Mobility in Childhood and Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, Changes in Income-Based Gaps in Parent Activities with Young Children from 1988 to 2012, A Warm Heart and a Clear Head: The Contingent Effects of Weather on Mood and Cognition, Effect of Sunlight Exposure on Cognitive Function Among Depressed and Non-Depressed Participants: A REGARDS Cross-Sectional Study, Playing Super Mario Induces Structural Brain Plasticity: Gray Matter Changes Resulting from Training with a Commercial Video Game, Social Class and the Daily Lives of Children: A Study from the United States, Invisible Inequality: Social Class and Childrearing in Black Families and White Families, Rainmakers: Why Bad Weather Means Good Productivity, The Clustering of Diet, Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior in Children and Adolescents: A Review, International Journal of Behavior Nutrition and Physical Activity, Effect of Aerobic Exercise on Cognition, Academic Achievement, and Psychosocial Function in Children: A Systematic Review of Randomized Control Trials, The Immediate Impact of Different Types of Television on Young Childrens Executive Function, Exercise and Cognitive Function: A Randomized Controlled Trial Examining Acute Exercise and Free-Living Physical Activity and Sedentary Effects, Acute Effects of Moderate Aerobic Exercise on Specific Aspects of Executive Function in Different Age and Fitness Groups: A Meta-Analysis, Height and Earnings: The Role of Cognitive and Noncognitive Skills, Do Political Protests Matter? eCollection 2023. One reason could be a systematic difference in opportunity cost structures, such that some children are substituting active behavior for less productive time use. We follow the best practices suggested by Graham, Olchowski, and Gilreath (2007) and conservatively use 150 imputations. Verbal ability may thus be more sensitive to the additive cognitive gains children experience as the school year progresses, while math may be more sticky in comparison. Sample sizes decline slightly in our FE-IV specifications because of a small number of observations with missing geocodes. In fact, short-duration StS should be included as an important warm-up component before the uptake of recreational sports activities due to its potential positive effect on flexibility and musculotendinous injury Outdoor recreation in protected areas negatively impacts wildlife <<
Another consideration is why we did not see similar effects using verbal outcomes (see online appendix table S2 for broad reading results). /Subtype /Image
(The CDS does include general information on the genre of television programs children consumed, but only for the 1997 and 2002 waves.) Fernndez-Mayoralas G, Rojo-Prez F, Martnez-Martn P, Prieto-Flores ME, Rodrguez-Blzquez C, Martn-Garca S, Rojo-Abun JM, Forjaz MJ; Spanish Research Group on Quality of Life and Ageing. Woodcock, Richard W., and Mary B. Johnson. Note: Cluster-robust standard errors are in parentheses. While recent work that attempts to econometrically isolate the causes of achievement supports the importance of intangibles like attitude and disposition, cognition still appears to be the primary determinant of economic success on both individual and national scales (Hanushek 2013; Lundborg, Nystedt, and Rooth 2014). That is, we cannot distinguish whether, for example, the connection between physical activity and cognitive performance is more straightforwardly physiological (e.g., through concrete channels like brain structure or enhanced executive functioning) or psychological (by being beneficial in themselves or substituting for other behaviors that may offer negative psychic and cognitive value). 1369
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We suspect behavior may be less sensitive to weather conditions among the children of college-educated caregivers because they are engaged or enrolled in more formalized activities that would be more likely to take place rain or shine (Lareau 2000, 2002; Weininger, Lareau, and Conley 2015). Barrington-Leigh, Christopher, and Fatemeh Behzadnejad. 2014). These effects are meaningfully large in a real-world sense, ranging from a rise or fall of a fifth to more than half a standard deviation in math scores per additional daily hour spent on the specific activity. The result also showed that active leisure activities, such as club/organization or volunteering, home making/maintenance and traveling, were significant predictors of life satisfaction for older adults controlling for covariates. Thus while we instrument with the average sunlight in KJ/m2 over the 24-hour period consistent with a time diary recorded on, say, Wednesday, June 5, we recognize by virtue of seasonality that we will in many cases be approximating sunlight on Tuesday the fourth, Thursday the sixth, and so on. Active recreation sites include swimming areas; playgrounds; tot lots; play fields; and tennis and other court game facilities. In this paper we use individual-level fixed effects coupled with a quasi-experimental research design, instrumenting active and sedentary behaviors with sunlight in trying to determine the cognitive effects of time use. (While there is no clear consensus value, specialists generally recommend first-stage F statistics of the excluded instrument above 10 [Stock, Wright, and Yogo 2002].) About 16 percent of our observations were cases where children either took the test on the same or following day as the time diary was recorded, while 80 percent were lagged by less than 10 days. Our stratified results indicate that children from less educated mothers and girls seem to be most sensitive to the effects of active and passive forms of leisure. Being a couch potato. and preferences for urban green spaces This would merely alter the causal pathway, such that physiologically endogenous vitamin synthesis acts as the causal mechanism between behavior and performance instead of through some other physical or psychological channel. FE-IV Results Stratified by Primary Caregivers Education. If the recreation is performed for other people, such as a 2022 Aug 12;10:966989. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.966989. The effects of sedentary behavior and screen time are particularly meaningful, given that by the 2007 wave, the adolescents in our data spent over 2.5 hours each day performing these passive leisure activities. Physical activity lowers blood pressure , which is one of the major contributing factors to cardiovascular events. One possibility in explaining the differences in effect sizes (or whether behaviors are significantly predictive) stratified by race or sex is the presence of a threshold effect, whereby the marginal consumption of a specific behavior becomes either more or less impactful past a certain point. That is, the brain seems to work harder in certain seasons than it does in others to exhibit stable performance, with the only difference being in energy expenditure. Because we view this in theory as more or less a dose-response relationship in the short and medium termlike a milder cousin to other exposures that induce changes in cognitive assessment, like neighborhood violence (e.g., Sharkey 2010)we exclude observations where the WJ-R test was administered before the time diary day, and cap the lag time at nine days so as to avoid an unrealistic coupling of exposure and outcome.
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